The tunnels are a prerequisite for living here: lessons from the Faroe Islands on how push-pull factors affect populations in small remote communities
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Published
Mar 14, 2024
Rico Kongsager
Abstract
Small remote communities in the Nordic countries face unique challenges due to their geographical isolation, limited resources, and sparse population. The latter is affected by migration, which can have both positive and negative implications for communities’ development, and so understanding the factors influencing migration patterns is essential for ensuring balanced regional development. This paper focuses on the population trends over the last two centuries in the Faroe Islands; more specifically, in the two small remote communities Hvannasund and Viðareiði in the Northern Islands. The overall theoretical framework applied is the push-pull migration concept. By examining the push-pull factors that drive migration patterns in these communities, the paper explores the impact on socio-economic development, and by analysing the interplay between these factors, this study aims to provide insights into the dynamics of movements and their implications for the development of small remote communities. The main findings are that economic factors are the main push-pull factors to explain the population changes in the investigated communities, while the social/demographic, political, and environmental factors to a lesser degree can explain the fluctuations but impact the more linear trends over time.
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References
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Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2016). Thematic analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 297–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613
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de Haas, H. (2011). The Determinants of International Migration: Conceptualizing Policy, Origin and Destination Effects. IMI Working Paper No. 32. Oxford: International Migration Institute.
Djurhuus, S. N. (2019). Reasons to stay // reasons to return.
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Harvey, R. G., & Suter, D. (1984). Migration in the Faroe Islands. Journal of Human Evolution, 13(4), 311–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(84)80035-4
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Hayfield, E. A. (2020). Parenting and islands: constructing gender and work in the Faroe Islands. In F. Gaini & H. P. Nielsen (Eds.), Gender and Island Communities. ROUTLEDGE.
Hayfield, E. A., Olavson, R., & Patursson, L. (2016). Part-time work in the Nordic Region III: an introductory study of the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland Islands.
Hayfield, E. A., & Rozanova-Smith, M. (2021). Migration and Mobility. In Pan-Arctic Report “Gender Equality in the Arctic” (pp. 144–191). Iceland’s Arctic Council Chairmanship and the Arctic Council Sustainable Development Working Group, with the Icelandic Arctic Cooperation Network, the Icelandic Directorate for Equality, and the Stefansson Arctic Institute.
Heberle, R. (1938). The causes of rural-urban migration a survey of German theories. American Journal of Sociology, 43, 932–950.
Heleniak, T. E. (2018). From migrants to workers international migration trends in the Nordic countries.
Hokwerda, R. (2017). Tunnel Visionary: The societal effects and impacts of sub-sea tunnels on the Faroe Islands (Master’s Thesis). Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
Hovgaard, G. (2015). Being Away; Being at Home; Being Both: The Case of Faroese Maritime Workers. In S. T. Faber & H. P. Nielsen (Eds.), Remapping Gender, Place and Mobility: Global Confluences and Local Particularities in Nordic Peripheries (pp. 1–264). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315605180
Hovgaard, G., & Kristiansen, S. (2008). Villages on the move: from places of necessity to places of choice. In J. O. Bærenholdt & B. Granås (Eds.), Mobility and Place: Enacting Northern European Peripheries (pp. 61–74). Routledge.
Hovgaard, G., & Kristiansen, S. M. (2016). Villages on the move: From places of necessity to places of choice. In J. O. Bærenholdt & B. Granås (Eds.), Mobility and place: Enacting Northern European peripheries (pp. 77–90). Routledge.
Hughes, C. (2019). Reexamining the Influence of Conditional Cash Transfers on Migration From a Gendered Lens. Demography, 56(5), 1573–1605. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13524-019-00815-0
Jackson, A. (1979). Socioeconomic Change in the Faroes. North Atlantic Maritime Cultures.
Jackson, A. (1991). The Faroes: The faraway islands. Robert Hale.
Jóansson, T. (2012). Brethren in the Faroes: An Evangelical movement, its remarkable growth and lasting impact in a remote island community (PhD Thesis). Faroe University Press.
Joensen, J. P. (1989). Socio-Economic Transformation and the Growth of Faroese National Identity. North Atlantic Studies, 1(1), 14–20.
Khalid, B., & Urbański, M. (2021). Approaches to understanding migration: A multi-country analysis of the push and pull migration trend -. Economics and Sociology, 14(4), 242–267.
Kongsager, R., & Baron, N. (2024). Place attachment, storms, and climate change in the Faroe Islands. Regional Environmental Change.
Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). Pull and push factors of migration. Global Management Review, 8(4), 8–13.
Kristiansen, S. M. (2006). Village dwelling. Understanding young people’s reasons for settling in Faroese villages. Fróðskaparrit - Faroese Scientific Journal, 54, 96–113.
Lee, E. S. (1966). A Theory of Migration. Demography, 3(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063
Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (2005). Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Oxford University Press.
Miller, J. (2003). The North Atlantic front: Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, and Iceland at war. Birlinn.
Mulder, C. H., Lundholm, E., & Malmberg, G. (2020). Young Adults’ Migration to Cities in Sweden: Do Siblings Pave the Way? Demography, 57(6), 2221–2244. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13524-020-00934-Z
Niu, F. (2022). A push-pull model for inter-city migration simulation. Cities, 131, 104005. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CITIES.2022.104005
Ojiaku, O. C., Nkamnebe, A. D., & Nwaizugbo, I. C. (2018). Determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among young graduates: perspectives of push-pull-mooring model. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research 2018 8:1, 8(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40497-018-0109-3
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Ravenstein, E. G. (1885). The laws of migration. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 48(2), 167. https://doi.org/10.2307/2979181
Ravenstein, E. G. (1889). The laws of migration. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 53(2), 241–305.
Raymond, C. M., Verbrugge, L. N. H., Fagerholm, N., Olafsson, A. S., Magnussen, E., & Plieninger, T. (2021). Exploring Senses of Place Through Narratives of Tourism Growth and Place Change: The Case of the Faroe Islands. In C. M. Raymond, L. C. Manzo, D. R. Williams, A. Di Masso, & T. von Wirth (Eds.), Changing Senses of Place - Navigating Global Challenges (pp. 79–91). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108769471.009
Rólantsson, O. J. (2000). The Faroe Islands: The New Millennium Series.
Samers, M. (2010). Migration (Key Ideas in Geography Series). Routledge.
Schei, L. K., & Moberg, G. (1991). The Faroe Islands. John Murray.
Schei, L. K., & Moberg, G. (2003). The Faroe Islands (2nd ed.). Birlinn Ltd.
Skeldon, R. (1990). Population Mobility in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation. In The Geographical Journal (Issue 7). Belhaven Press. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU10072301
Statistics Faroe Islands. (2024, February 25). Statistics Faroe Islands (Hagstova Føroya). https://hagstova.fo/en
Thomas, B. (1973). Migration and Economic Growth: A Study of Great Britain and the Atlantic Economy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Urbański, M. (2022). Comparing Push and Pull Factors Affecting Migration. Economies, 10(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECONOMIES10010021
Van Hear, N., Bakewell, O., & Long, K. (2017). Push-pull plus: reconsidering the drivers of migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(6), 927–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384135
Wang, C., Shen, J., & Liu, Y. (2021). Administrative level, city tier, and air quality: contextual determinants of hukou conversion for migrants in China. Computational Urban Science, 1(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/S43762-021-00007-W/FIGURES/5
Wang, S., Wang, M., & Liu, Y. (2021). Access to urban parks: Comparing spatial accessibility measures using three GIS-based approaches. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 90, 101713. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COMPENVURBSYS.2021.101713
West, J. F. (1972). Faroe: the emergence of a nation. Hurst.
Wylie, J. (1987). The Faroe Islands: Interpretations of History. University Press of Kentucky.
Wylie, J., & Margolin, D. (1981). The Ring of Dancers: Images of Faroese Culture. University of Pennsylvania Press Anniversary Collection.
Zachariasen, S. (2013). Migration of the Highly Skilled: The Case of Brain Drain in the Faroe Islands (Master’s Thesis).
Adler-Nissen, R. (2014). The Faroe Islands: Independence dreams, globalist separatism and the Europeanization of postcolonial home rule. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(1), 55–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836713514150
Andersen, T. M. (2020). Fiscal Relations in the Realm of Denmark - The Case of the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Revista de La Academia Puertorriquena de Jurisprudencia y Legislacion / Puerto Rican Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation Review, 17.
Apostle, R., Holm, D., Hovgaard, G., Waag Høgnesen, O., & Mortensen, B. (2002). The Restructuration of the Faroese Economy. Samfundslitteratur.
Berghamar, S. (1992). - men Gud gav vøkst [- but God gave growth]. William Sloan og fyrstu samkomurnar.
Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2016). Thematic analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 297–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613
Dahl, S. (2023). Knitting the Faroes: understanding island change through the social infrastructures of women’s everyday lives (Master’s Thesis).
de Haas, H. (2011). The Determinants of International Migration: Conceptualizing Policy, Origin and Destination Effects. IMI Working Paper No. 32. Oxford: International Migration Institute.
Djurhuus, S. N. (2019). Reasons to stay // reasons to return.
Ecott, T. (2021). The Land of Maybe: A Faroe Islands Year. Short Books.
Fouberg, E. H., & Murphy, A. B. (2020). Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture (12th ed.). Wiley.
Frank, B., & Brown, S. (2014). Demographic analyses of immigration. In C. B. Brettell & J. F. Hollifield (Eds.), Migration Theory: Talking across Disciplines (pp. 79–101). Taylor and Francis.
Gaffin, D. (1996). In place: spatial and social order in a Faeroe Islands community. Waveland Press.
Gaini, F. (2011). Among the islanders of the north: an anthropology of the Faroe Islands. Faroe University Press.
Gaini, F. (2013). Lessons of Islands: Place and identity in the Faroe Islands. In Fróðskapur Books. Fróðskaparsetur Føroya, Søgu- og samfelagsdeildin. https://doi.org/10.18602/FRODSKAPUR.VI.198
Gaini, F. (2018). Altered Islands: Young Faroe Islanders’ Future Landscapes. Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society, 43(4), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.30676/JFAS.V43I4.73270
Guttesen, R. (1970). Færøernes migrationer 1961-65, med en kort befolkningsbeskrivelse [The Faroe Islands’ migrations 1961-65, with a brief population description]. Geografisk Tidsskrift, 69, 1–27.
Guttesen, R. (1980). Recent Development in Faroese Fishing Industry. Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography, 80(1), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167223.1980.10649124
Guttesen, R. (1984). Migration trends on the Faroe Islands. Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography, 84(1), 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167223.1984.10649202
Hamilton, L. C., Colocousis, C. R., & Johansen, S. T. F. (2004). Migration from Resource Depletion: The Case of the Faroe Islands. Society & Natural Resources, 17(5), 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920490430232
Harvey, R. G., & Suter, D. (1984). Migration in the Faroe Islands. Journal of Human Evolution, 13(4), 311–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(84)80035-4
Hayfield, E. A. (2017). Exploring Transnational Realities in the Lives of Faroese Youngsters. Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 7(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1515/NJMR-2017-0007
Hayfield, E. A. (2018). Family-centred work motility in a small island society: the case of the Faroe Islands. Gender, Place & Culture, 25(8), 1138–1153. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2018.1461075
Hayfield, E. A. (2020). Parenting and islands: constructing gender and work in the Faroe Islands. In F. Gaini & H. P. Nielsen (Eds.), Gender and Island Communities. ROUTLEDGE.
Hayfield, E. A., Olavson, R., & Patursson, L. (2016). Part-time work in the Nordic Region III: an introductory study of the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland Islands.
Hayfield, E. A., & Rozanova-Smith, M. (2021). Migration and Mobility. In Pan-Arctic Report “Gender Equality in the Arctic” (pp. 144–191). Iceland’s Arctic Council Chairmanship and the Arctic Council Sustainable Development Working Group, with the Icelandic Arctic Cooperation Network, the Icelandic Directorate for Equality, and the Stefansson Arctic Institute.
Heberle, R. (1938). The causes of rural-urban migration a survey of German theories. American Journal of Sociology, 43, 932–950.
Heleniak, T. E. (2018). From migrants to workers international migration trends in the Nordic countries.
Hokwerda, R. (2017). Tunnel Visionary: The societal effects and impacts of sub-sea tunnels on the Faroe Islands (Master’s Thesis). Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
Hovgaard, G. (2015). Being Away; Being at Home; Being Both: The Case of Faroese Maritime Workers. In S. T. Faber & H. P. Nielsen (Eds.), Remapping Gender, Place and Mobility: Global Confluences and Local Particularities in Nordic Peripheries (pp. 1–264). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315605180
Hovgaard, G., & Kristiansen, S. (2008). Villages on the move: from places of necessity to places of choice. In J. O. Bærenholdt & B. Granås (Eds.), Mobility and Place: Enacting Northern European Peripheries (pp. 61–74). Routledge.
Hovgaard, G., & Kristiansen, S. M. (2016). Villages on the move: From places of necessity to places of choice. In J. O. Bærenholdt & B. Granås (Eds.), Mobility and place: Enacting Northern European peripheries (pp. 77–90). Routledge.
Hughes, C. (2019). Reexamining the Influence of Conditional Cash Transfers on Migration From a Gendered Lens. Demography, 56(5), 1573–1605. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13524-019-00815-0
Jackson, A. (1979). Socioeconomic Change in the Faroes. North Atlantic Maritime Cultures.
Jackson, A. (1991). The Faroes: The faraway islands. Robert Hale.
Jóansson, T. (2012). Brethren in the Faroes: An Evangelical movement, its remarkable growth and lasting impact in a remote island community (PhD Thesis). Faroe University Press.
Joensen, J. P. (1989). Socio-Economic Transformation and the Growth of Faroese National Identity. North Atlantic Studies, 1(1), 14–20.
Khalid, B., & Urbański, M. (2021). Approaches to understanding migration: A multi-country analysis of the push and pull migration trend -. Economics and Sociology, 14(4), 242–267.
Kongsager, R., & Baron, N. (2024). Place attachment, storms, and climate change in the Faroe Islands. Regional Environmental Change.
Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). Pull and push factors of migration. Global Management Review, 8(4), 8–13.
Kristiansen, S. M. (2006). Village dwelling. Understanding young people’s reasons for settling in Faroese villages. Fróðskaparrit - Faroese Scientific Journal, 54, 96–113.
Lee, E. S. (1966). A Theory of Migration. Demography, 3(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063
Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (2005). Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Oxford University Press.
Miller, J. (2003). The North Atlantic front: Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, and Iceland at war. Birlinn.
Mulder, C. H., Lundholm, E., & Malmberg, G. (2020). Young Adults’ Migration to Cities in Sweden: Do Siblings Pave the Way? Demography, 57(6), 2221–2244. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13524-020-00934-Z
Niu, F. (2022). A push-pull model for inter-city migration simulation. Cities, 131, 104005. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CITIES.2022.104005
Ojiaku, O. C., Nkamnebe, A. D., & Nwaizugbo, I. C. (2018). Determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among young graduates: perspectives of push-pull-mooring model. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research 2018 8:1, 8(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40497-018-0109-3
Proctor, J. (2019). Faroe Islands (5th ed.). Bradt Travel Guide.
Ravenstein, E. G. (1885). The laws of migration. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 48(2), 167. https://doi.org/10.2307/2979181
Ravenstein, E. G. (1889). The laws of migration. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 53(2), 241–305.
Raymond, C. M., Verbrugge, L. N. H., Fagerholm, N., Olafsson, A. S., Magnussen, E., & Plieninger, T. (2021). Exploring Senses of Place Through Narratives of Tourism Growth and Place Change: The Case of the Faroe Islands. In C. M. Raymond, L. C. Manzo, D. R. Williams, A. Di Masso, & T. von Wirth (Eds.), Changing Senses of Place - Navigating Global Challenges (pp. 79–91). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108769471.009
Rólantsson, O. J. (2000). The Faroe Islands: The New Millennium Series.
Samers, M. (2010). Migration (Key Ideas in Geography Series). Routledge.
Schei, L. K., & Moberg, G. (1991). The Faroe Islands. John Murray.
Schei, L. K., & Moberg, G. (2003). The Faroe Islands (2nd ed.). Birlinn Ltd.
Skeldon, R. (1990). Population Mobility in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation. In The Geographical Journal (Issue 7). Belhaven Press. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU10072301
Statistics Faroe Islands. (2024, February 25). Statistics Faroe Islands (Hagstova Føroya). https://hagstova.fo/en
Thomas, B. (1973). Migration and Economic Growth: A Study of Great Britain and the Atlantic Economy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Urbański, M. (2022). Comparing Push and Pull Factors Affecting Migration. Economies, 10(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECONOMIES10010021
Van Hear, N., Bakewell, O., & Long, K. (2017). Push-pull plus: reconsidering the drivers of migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(6), 927–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384135
Wang, C., Shen, J., & Liu, Y. (2021). Administrative level, city tier, and air quality: contextual determinants of hukou conversion for migrants in China. Computational Urban Science, 1(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/S43762-021-00007-W/FIGURES/5
Wang, S., Wang, M., & Liu, Y. (2021). Access to urban parks: Comparing spatial accessibility measures using three GIS-based approaches. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 90, 101713. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COMPENVURBSYS.2021.101713
West, J. F. (1972). Faroe: the emergence of a nation. Hurst.
Wylie, J. (1987). The Faroe Islands: Interpretations of History. University Press of Kentucky.
Wylie, J., & Margolin, D. (1981). The Ring of Dancers: Images of Faroese Culture. University of Pennsylvania Press Anniversary Collection.
Zachariasen, S. (2013). Migration of the Highly Skilled: The Case of Brain Drain in the Faroe Islands (Master’s Thesis).
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