The core-peripheral belief dynamic and its impact on teaching speaking in English as a foreign language (EFL) in grade 8 in the Faroe Islands
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Published
Nov 28, 2024
Kalpana Vijayavarathan-R
Abstract
The objective of this qualitative parallel case study was to elicit the teacher cognition of grade 8 teachers in the Faroe Islands about teaching speaking in English as a foreign language (EFL). Teacher cognition and actions were studied in context based on data from semi-structured interviews, mixed questionnaire and observations. Manual thematic analysis through using a priori and post priori codes was adopted to parse data and establish the influence of teacher cognition on teaching in the classroom and identify any common trends among participants. The results show that teacher cognition has a marked influence on teaching speaking. Congruence between cognition and teaching is apparent, with some instances of incongruence. Congruence between teacher cognition and teaching speaking rests on two factors – the marked influence of ‘apprenticeship of observation’ i.e., the influence of teachers’ personal experiences from years of education that shapes their thoughts and teaching and teacher understanding of teaching speaking as ‘doing’ speaking i.e., providing opportunities for students to speak in the classroom. Incongruence stems from the core-peripheral belief dynamic, where the predominance of core beliefs over peripheral beliefs affects the efficacy of teaching speaking.
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Keywords
EFL, teacher cognition, teaching speaking, core-peripheral beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge
References
Barnard, R., & Burns, A. (Eds.) (2012). Researching language teacher cognition and practice: International case studies. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Beauchamp, Catherine & Thomas, Lynn. (2009). Understanding teacher identity: An overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education. 39. 175-189. 10.1080/03057640902902252.
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Lang. Teach. 36, 81–109. doi: 10.1017/S0261444803001903.
Borg, M. (2004). The apprenticeship of observation. ELT Journal, 58(3), 274-276.
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: research and practice. Continuum, London: Continuum.
Borg, S. (2012). Current approaches to language teacher cognition research: a methodological analysis. In: Barnard R, Burns A (eds) Researching language teacher cognition and practice: international case studies. Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp 11–29.
Borg, S. (2018). Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. In: Garrett, P., Cots, J. (Eds), The Routledge handbook of language awareness (pp. 75–91). London: Routledge.
Borg, S. (2019). “Language teacher cognition: perspectives and debates,” in Second Handbook of English Language Teaching, ed. X. Gao (Cham: Springer Nature).
Borg, S. and A. Burns. (2008). Integrating grammar in adult TESOL classrooms. Applied Linguistics 29(3), 456–482.
Buehl, M. M. & Fives, H. (2009). Exploring teachers ’beliefs about teaching knowledge: Where does it come from? Does it change? Journal of Experimental Education, 77(4), 367–408.
Bueno, A, D. Madrid & N. McLaren, (Eds.) (2006). TEFL in secondary education. Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada.
Burkart, G. & Sheppard, K. (2004). A descriptive study of content-ESL practices. Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/cal/contentesl/ index.htm.
Chen, Z. & Goh, C. (2011). Teaching oral English in higher education: Challenges to EFL teachers. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(3), 333-345.
Chen, Z., & Goh, C. (2014). Teacher knowledge about oral English instruction and teacher profiles: an EFL perspective. Teacher Development, 18(1), 81–99.
Collins, M., Shattell, M., & Thomas, S.P. (2005). An exploration of problematic interviewee behaviors in qualitative research. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 27(2), 188-199.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research method: Choosing among five approaches (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Darling-Hammond, L., Holtzman, D. J., Gatlin, S. J., & Heilig, J. V. (2005). Does teacher preparation matter? Evidence about teacher certification, Teach for America, and teacher effectiveness. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(42). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ846746.pdf.
De Witt, N. (2013). Coding - an overview and guide to qualitative data analysis for integral researchers. IRC Resource Paper. No. 1 Version 1.0.
Devetak, G. and Vogrinc, J. (2010). The role of qualitative research in Science. Education Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 6(1), 77-84.
Duff, P. (2008). Case Study research in applied linguistics. Mahwah: Lawrence Earlbaum.
Farquhar, J. & Michels, N. (2016). Triangulation without tears. In M. Groza & C. Ragland (Eds.), Marketing Challenges in a Turbulent Business Environment (pp. 325-330). Heidelberg: Springer.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: teacher knowledge and learning. Lang. Teach. 35, 1–13. doi: 10.1017/S0261444801001720
Gao, L. X., Zhang, L. J., and Tesar, M. (2020). Teacher cognition about sources of English as a foreign language (EFL) listening anxiety: a qualitative study. Linguist. Philos. Investig. 19, 64–85. doi: 10.22381/LPI1920203
Ghasemboland, F. & Hashimb, F. (2013). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their English language proficiency: A study of nonnative EFL teachers in selected language centers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 103.
Gliner, J. A. (1994). Reviewing qualitative research: proposed criteria for fairness and rigor. The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research 14(2), 78–90.
Goh, C. & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Goh, C. (2013). Globalization and teacher development for spoken English instruction. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29-38.
Goh, C. (2014). Reconceptualising second language oracy instruction: metacognitive engagement and direct teaching in listening and speaking. The Asian Journal of English Language & Pedagogy, 2, 1-31.
Guerriero, S. (2017). Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and the teaching profession: background report and project objectives. OECD Directorate of Education and Skills Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/Background_document_to_Symposium_ITEL-FINAL.pdf
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Khoshima, H. and Shokri, H. (2016). The effects of ESA elements on speaking ability of intermediate EFL learners: A task-based approach. Theory and Practice in Language Studies 6(5), 1085-1095.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition (1st Ed.). Oxford: Pergamon.
Kubanyiova, M., & Feryok, A. (2015). Language teacher cognition in applied linguistics research: Revisiting the territory, redrawing the boundaries, reclaiming the relevance. Modern Language Journal, 99(3), 435-449.
Kleickmann, T., Richter, D., Kunter, M., Elsner, J., Besser, M., Krauss, S., & Baumert, J. (2013). Teachers' content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge: The role of structural differences in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(1), 90-106.
Lee, I. (2009). Ten mismatches between teachers’ beliefs and written corrective feedback practice. ELT Journal, 63(1), 13-22.
Li, L. (2017). Social Interaction and Teacher Cognition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Lockwood, J. (2007). An interdisciplinary approach to teaching adults English in the workplace. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 403-412). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Mart, T. (2012). Developing Speaking skills through reading. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(6), 91.
Meijer, P., Verloop, N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Multi-method triangulation in a qualitative study on teachers’ practical knowledge: an attempt to increase internal validity. Quality & Quantity 36(2), 145–167.
National Faroese curriculum for English. (2019). https://namsaetlanir.fo/folkaskuli/kravdar-laerugreinar/enskt-4-10/
Olafson, L. & Schraw, G. (2006). Teachers’ beliefs and practices within and across domains. International Journal of Educational Research, 45(1-2), 71–84.
Phipps, S. & Borg, S. (2007). Exploring the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practice. The Teacher Trainer, 21(3), 17-19.
Rahimi, M. & Katal, M. (2012). Metacognitive strategies awareness and success in learning English as a foreign language: an overview. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 31, pp. 73-81.
Saunders, W. M. & O’Brien, G. (2006). Oral language. In F. Genesee, K. Lindholm-Leary, W. Saunders & D. Christian (Eds.), Educating English language learners (pp. 14–57). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R.W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11(2), 129–58.
Schwandt, T. A. (2001). Dictionary of qualitative inquiry (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
Smith, L.K. (2005). The impact of early life history on teachers’ beliefs: In-school and out-of school experiences as learners and knowers of science. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 11(1), 5–36.
Spencer, H. (2015). The paradox from within: research participants doing-being-observed. Qualitative Research, 16 (4), 446-467.
Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In: N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd Ed.) (pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Starman, A.B. (2013). The CS as a type of qualitative research. Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies / Sodobna Pedagogika, 64(1), 28-43.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley: Newbury House.
Thomas, A.D. (2003). A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis. School of Population Health, University of Auckland.
Author. (2018). Teacher cognition of grade 8 teachers on teaching speaking in English as a foreign language in the Faroe Islands and its impact on teachers' pedagogical praxis: seven case studies. doi: 10.7146/aul.287.201.
Wyatt, M. & Borg, S. (2011). Development in the practical knowledge of language teachers: a comparative study of three teachers designing and using communicative tasks on an in-service BA TESOL programme in the Middle East. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 5(3), 233-252.
Yu, S., Hao, X., Jiang, L., and Chan, I. (2020). Understanding Macau novice secondary teachers’ beliefs and practices of EFL writing instruction: a complexity theory perspective. J. Second Lang. Writ. 48, 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100728.
Beauchamp, Catherine & Thomas, Lynn. (2009). Understanding teacher identity: An overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education. 39. 175-189. 10.1080/03057640902902252.
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Lang. Teach. 36, 81–109. doi: 10.1017/S0261444803001903.
Borg, M. (2004). The apprenticeship of observation. ELT Journal, 58(3), 274-276.
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: research and practice. Continuum, London: Continuum.
Borg, S. (2012). Current approaches to language teacher cognition research: a methodological analysis. In: Barnard R, Burns A (eds) Researching language teacher cognition and practice: international case studies. Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp 11–29.
Borg, S. (2018). Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. In: Garrett, P., Cots, J. (Eds), The Routledge handbook of language awareness (pp. 75–91). London: Routledge.
Borg, S. (2019). “Language teacher cognition: perspectives and debates,” in Second Handbook of English Language Teaching, ed. X. Gao (Cham: Springer Nature).
Borg, S. and A. Burns. (2008). Integrating grammar in adult TESOL classrooms. Applied Linguistics 29(3), 456–482.
Buehl, M. M. & Fives, H. (2009). Exploring teachers ’beliefs about teaching knowledge: Where does it come from? Does it change? Journal of Experimental Education, 77(4), 367–408.
Bueno, A, D. Madrid & N. McLaren, (Eds.) (2006). TEFL in secondary education. Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada.
Burkart, G. & Sheppard, K. (2004). A descriptive study of content-ESL practices. Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/cal/contentesl/ index.htm.
Chen, Z. & Goh, C. (2011). Teaching oral English in higher education: Challenges to EFL teachers. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(3), 333-345.
Chen, Z., & Goh, C. (2014). Teacher knowledge about oral English instruction and teacher profiles: an EFL perspective. Teacher Development, 18(1), 81–99.
Collins, M., Shattell, M., & Thomas, S.P. (2005). An exploration of problematic interviewee behaviors in qualitative research. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 27(2), 188-199.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research method: Choosing among five approaches (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Darling-Hammond, L., Holtzman, D. J., Gatlin, S. J., & Heilig, J. V. (2005). Does teacher preparation matter? Evidence about teacher certification, Teach for America, and teacher effectiveness. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(42). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ846746.pdf.
De Witt, N. (2013). Coding - an overview and guide to qualitative data analysis for integral researchers. IRC Resource Paper. No. 1 Version 1.0.
Devetak, G. and Vogrinc, J. (2010). The role of qualitative research in Science. Education Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 6(1), 77-84.
Duff, P. (2008). Case Study research in applied linguistics. Mahwah: Lawrence Earlbaum.
Farquhar, J. & Michels, N. (2016). Triangulation without tears. In M. Groza & C. Ragland (Eds.), Marketing Challenges in a Turbulent Business Environment (pp. 325-330). Heidelberg: Springer.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: teacher knowledge and learning. Lang. Teach. 35, 1–13. doi: 10.1017/S0261444801001720
Gao, L. X., Zhang, L. J., and Tesar, M. (2020). Teacher cognition about sources of English as a foreign language (EFL) listening anxiety: a qualitative study. Linguist. Philos. Investig. 19, 64–85. doi: 10.22381/LPI1920203
Ghasemboland, F. & Hashimb, F. (2013). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their English language proficiency: A study of nonnative EFL teachers in selected language centers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 103.
Gliner, J. A. (1994). Reviewing qualitative research: proposed criteria for fairness and rigor. The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research 14(2), 78–90.
Goh, C. & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Goh, C. (2013). Globalization and teacher development for spoken English instruction. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29-38.
Goh, C. (2014). Reconceptualising second language oracy instruction: metacognitive engagement and direct teaching in listening and speaking. The Asian Journal of English Language & Pedagogy, 2, 1-31.
Guerriero, S. (2017). Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and the teaching profession: background report and project objectives. OECD Directorate of Education and Skills Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/Background_document_to_Symposium_ITEL-FINAL.pdf
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Khoshima, H. and Shokri, H. (2016). The effects of ESA elements on speaking ability of intermediate EFL learners: A task-based approach. Theory and Practice in Language Studies 6(5), 1085-1095.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition (1st Ed.). Oxford: Pergamon.
Kubanyiova, M., & Feryok, A. (2015). Language teacher cognition in applied linguistics research: Revisiting the territory, redrawing the boundaries, reclaiming the relevance. Modern Language Journal, 99(3), 435-449.
Kleickmann, T., Richter, D., Kunter, M., Elsner, J., Besser, M., Krauss, S., & Baumert, J. (2013). Teachers' content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge: The role of structural differences in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(1), 90-106.
Lee, I. (2009). Ten mismatches between teachers’ beliefs and written corrective feedback practice. ELT Journal, 63(1), 13-22.
Li, L. (2017). Social Interaction and Teacher Cognition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Lockwood, J. (2007). An interdisciplinary approach to teaching adults English in the workplace. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 403-412). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Mart, T. (2012). Developing Speaking skills through reading. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(6), 91.
Meijer, P., Verloop, N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Multi-method triangulation in a qualitative study on teachers’ practical knowledge: an attempt to increase internal validity. Quality & Quantity 36(2), 145–167.
National Faroese curriculum for English. (2019). https://namsaetlanir.fo/folkaskuli/kravdar-laerugreinar/enskt-4-10/
Olafson, L. & Schraw, G. (2006). Teachers’ beliefs and practices within and across domains. International Journal of Educational Research, 45(1-2), 71–84.
Phipps, S. & Borg, S. (2007). Exploring the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practice. The Teacher Trainer, 21(3), 17-19.
Rahimi, M. & Katal, M. (2012). Metacognitive strategies awareness and success in learning English as a foreign language: an overview. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 31, pp. 73-81.
Saunders, W. M. & O’Brien, G. (2006). Oral language. In F. Genesee, K. Lindholm-Leary, W. Saunders & D. Christian (Eds.), Educating English language learners (pp. 14–57). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R.W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11(2), 129–58.
Schwandt, T. A. (2001). Dictionary of qualitative inquiry (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
Smith, L.K. (2005). The impact of early life history on teachers’ beliefs: In-school and out-of school experiences as learners and knowers of science. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 11(1), 5–36.
Spencer, H. (2015). The paradox from within: research participants doing-being-observed. Qualitative Research, 16 (4), 446-467.
Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In: N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd Ed.) (pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Starman, A.B. (2013). The CS as a type of qualitative research. Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies / Sodobna Pedagogika, 64(1), 28-43.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley: Newbury House.
Thomas, A.D. (2003). A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis. School of Population Health, University of Auckland.
Author. (2018). Teacher cognition of grade 8 teachers on teaching speaking in English as a foreign language in the Faroe Islands and its impact on teachers' pedagogical praxis: seven case studies. doi: 10.7146/aul.287.201.
Wyatt, M. & Borg, S. (2011). Development in the practical knowledge of language teachers: a comparative study of three teachers designing and using communicative tasks on an in-service BA TESOL programme in the Middle East. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 5(3), 233-252.
Yu, S., Hao, X., Jiang, L., and Chan, I. (2020). Understanding Macau novice secondary teachers’ beliefs and practices of EFL writing instruction: a complexity theory perspective. J. Second Lang. Writ. 48, 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100728.
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